UNVEILING THE FUTURE OF ENERGY: From Traditional to Revolutionary Solid-State Batteries

Sections

1. The Leap into the Past: History of Batteries - From their inception to today's established technologies.
2. Current Vision and Future: Batteries Under Design - An in-depth analysis of batteries currently in the design phase and expected developments.
3. Environmental Impact and Sustainability in the Battery Sector - Examining the environmental impact of batteries and initiatives to make the sector more sustainable.
4. Solid and Safe: Solid-State Batteries - Exploring the promising technology of solid-state batteries.
5. Under the X-Rays: 2D and 3D Tomography - The importance of battery inspection through X-ray tomography.
6. Zooming in on Advanced Technologies: X-Ray Imaging - Delving into advanced X-ray imaging techniques.
7. Car Batteries Unleashed: Technologies for Automotive - Analyzing batteries in the automotive world, with a focus on emerging technologies.
8. The Art of Diagnosis: X-Ray for the Future - Concluding with a perspective on the future of battery diagnosis through X-ray.

1. The Leap into the Past: History of Batteries

The history of batteries, imbued with mystery and innovation, unfolds along the timelines of the past, even predating Benjamin Franklin's famed discovery of electricity in 1740.

A fascinating turning point emerges in 1983 when archaeologists, diving into the ancient lands of Khujut Rabu near Baghdad, made an extraordinary discovery.

In those history-steeped places, they unearthed terracotta pots that housed copper sheets skillfully wrapped around an iron rod.

The intrigue behind this enigmatic combination is captivating: it is hypothesized that it could represent an ancient form of battery.

This bold theory suggests that these ancient artifacts could serve as tools for gold plating, a process that took place within the millennia-old Parthian civilization, which thrived between 250 BC and AD 250.

A fascinating symphony of knowledge, technology, and art intertwines in this forgotten chapter of the past, offering a timeless glimpse into the origins of batteries and their role in the layering of human history.

"Historical Timeline of Batteries"

Historical Timeline of Batteries:

• 1786:  Frog Legs and Electricity - Luigi Galvani discovers the concept of the battery through experiments with frogs and metal. Alessandro Volta later disputes Galvani's interpretation, proposing the dissimilar metals theory.
• 1800:  The Birth of the Voltaic Pile - Alessandro Volta creates the first wet cell battery, the voltaic pile, consisting of layers of copper and zinc separated by cardboard soaked in brine.

• 1820:  The Daniell Battery - John Frederic Daniell mitigates the hydrogen bubbles issue, improving the voltaic pile and using it to power communication devices.

• 1838:  The Porous Pot Cell - John Dancer employs the design of the Daniell Cell, introducing a central zinc anode in a zinc sulfate solution and a copper cathode in a copper sulfate solution.

• 1859:   The Advent of Lead-Acid Batteries - Gaston Planté invents the first rechargeable lead-acid battery, enhancing battery life span.

• 1866:  The Leclanché Cell, a Zinc-Carbon Battery - Georges Leclanché invents a battery with a zinc anode, manganese dioxide cathode, and ammonium chloride solution.

• 1886:   Carl Gassner's Version of the Leclanché Cell - Carl Gassner introduces the first dry battery, using Plaster of Paris for the ammonium chloride paste.

• 1899:   The Nickel-Cadmium Battery - Waldemar Jungner invents the first rechargeable nickel-cadmium (NiCD) battery with an alkaline electrolyte.

• 1903:   The Edison Battery - Thomas Edison creates the nickel-iron battery, initially for automobiles but later used in industry and transportation.

• 1955:   The Arrival of Alkaline Batteries - Lewis Urry improves zinc-carbon batteries by introducing alkaline batteries, with longer life and stability.

• 1912:   Lithium and Lithium-Ion Batteries - Gilbert Newton Lewis experiments with lithium batteries. In 1991, Sony commercializes the lithium-ion battery.

"Historical Timeline of Batteries"

From the creation of ancient terracotta batteries to current innovations, the history of batteries unfolds like a fascinating journey through time, marked by countless discoveries and constant refinements.

This path has its roots in antiquity when humans began experimenting with rudimentary materials to generate and store energy.

One of the most significant episodes in this saga is the revolution of electric vehicles, a chapter that spans not just a few decades but encompasses 197 years of illustrious past.

From early experiments with carts driven by electric motors to epochal events like the introduction of the first commercial electric vehicles, this story has gone through periods of enthusiasm and challenges, substantially contributing to shaping the transport landscape.

The electric vehicle revolution has overcome the barriers of time, with ups and downs that have characterized its journey.

However, ceaseless innovation and continuous development have played a crucial role in breaking down resistance and bringing electric vehicles closer to the everyday life of the common man.

This journey through the history of batteries and electric vehicles is a tale of perseverance, ingenuity, and vision, highlighting humanity's constant commitment to seeking sustainable and advanced solutions for mobility and energy.

"Historical photo of an electric car"

Electrical engineering, born in 1800 with Volta's battery, required years of experimentation by researchers before they could develop generators usable outside of laboratories, integrating them into daily life.

In Paris, the center of scientific development in the 19th century, researchers, aware of the potential of the continuous electric fluid of batteries, conducted intense experiments.

Voltaic batteries, constructed with different metals and electrodes, were the result of sixty years of dedication.

Two inventions emerged from this effort, Planté's electric accumulator and Leclanché's batteries, are still produced in billions of units today, thanks to their extraordinary energy qualities and practicality.

"Price List and Features of Historic Electric Cars"

2. Current Vision and Future: Batteries Under Design

Batteries play a pivotal role in key technologies to achieve the ambitious goal of making Europe climate-neutral by 2050.

The global challenges of climate change, environmental pollution, habitat loss, and biodiversity decline call for a coordinated response.

In 2019, the carbon footprint of the EU-27 reached 6.7 tons of CO2 per capita, prompting the European Union to aim for a 55% reduction in greenhouse gas emissions by 2030, with the ambitious goal of net-zero emissions by 2050, as part of the European Green Deal launched in December 2019.

The mission of the Green Deal is to transform the EU's economy to ensure a sustainable future, positioning Europe as the first climate-neutral continent by 2050 and aligning with the United Nations' 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development goals.

The Battery 2030+ roadmap presents policies, objectives, and key actions to support this vision, highlighting high-efficiency rechargeable batteries as a key technology for energy storage across a wide range of applications.

"Battery Roadmap"

These batteries not only accelerate the transition towards sustainable and smart mobility but also contribute to providing clean, affordable, and safe energy, promoting a transition to a cleaner and circular economy, including the assessment of the entire life cycle (LCA).

The increasing demand for batteries, as forecasted by international institutions, highlights the need for Europe to develop an annual production capacity of at least 200 GWh over the next five years, with a perspective of steady growth towards the TWh range to meet the needs of European companies.

The demand for lithium-ion batteries is expected to grow by about 33% annually, reaching approximately 4,700 GWh by 2030.

"Projected growth of global battery demand by region (left) and sector (right)."

Il mercato delle batterie ad alta densità di energia è attualmente guidato dalle batterie agli ioni di litio (LIB), efficaci in diverse applicazioni.

Tuttavia, le LIB attuali, avvicinandosi ai limiti prestazionali, richiedono innovazioni significative per mantenere il passo con gli sviluppi necessari.

BATTERIE AGLI IONI DI LITIO

The high-energy density battery market is currently dominated by lithium-ion batteries (LIBs), which are effective in a variety of applications.

However, current LIBs, nearing their performance limits, require significant innovations to keep pace with the necessary developments.

LITHIUM-ION BATTERIES    

     

"The figure shows only the metal content (as a percentage of weight), no oxygen content.

The oxygen content varies from 33 to 41% by weight, depending on the active cathode material."

The market evolution is shaping up with the introduction of solid-state batteries, expected in 2025, marking a revolution in the industry through to 2035.

  

"Lithium-Ion Batteries and Solid-State Batteries"

This innovation, along with LIBs, will continue to play a crucial role in energy storage, but revolutionary ideas are needed to create sustainable batteries and ensure European competitiveness in the transition towards an electricity-based society, aiming to become climate-neutral.

To tackle this challenge, it is essential to develop a dynamic ecosystem that includes long-term transformative research, starting from the fundamental Technology Readiness Levels (TRLs).

This would allow the rapid introduction of new knowledge and concepts across all TRLs and into commercial products.

The growing demand for batteries, including the prospect of solid-state batteries, is evident in international forecasts.

Europe will need to develop an annual production capacity of at least 200 GWh over the next five years, projecting towards the TWh range for European companies.

High-efficiency rechargeable batteries, including future solid-state batteries, are fundamental for energy storage, supporting the transition towards sustainable mobility and contributing to a clean and circular economy, as also indicated in the European Green Deal.

"Chrono-History of Batteries from Their Inception to Present"

To develop the necessary innovative technologies, multidisciplinary and cross-sectoral research efforts are required.

Europe has the potential to lead this sector, but a coordinated and collaborative approach involving industry, research, policymakers, and the public is essential.

3. Environmental Impact and Sustainability in the Battery Sector

Rare earth elements are central to the ecological transition, essential for renewable technologies and electronic devices. However, their extraction pollutes and generates social, environmental, and geopolitical impacts.

The increasing use of rare earths has raised concerns about dependence on producer countries and the security of supply chains.

China, in particular, holds a dominant position in this sector, creating global geopolitical risks. Political parties have proposed various ideas about the ecological transition, but the challenges related to rare earths are complex.

The risk of dependence on supplier countries has been highlighted, emphasizing the need for clear and sustainable strategies.

The energy transition requires an increased use of mineral resources, intensifying dependence on these raw materials.

The circular economy emerges as a solution to become independent from rare earths, promoting recycling and waste reduction.

In a context of global inequalities, access to clean energy and advanced technologies is crucial. However, responsible management of rare earths becomes imperative to ensure a fair ecological transition, minimizing negative impacts and promoting sustainable energy independence.

The search for sustainable alternatives, such as projects aimed at replacing rare earths with more eco-friendly materials, reflects the growing awareness of the environmental challenges associated with these critical minerals.

Global awareness and action are crucial to addressing the "paradox" of rare earths in the ecological transition.

The relocation of rare earth production from China to overseas companies has garnered increasing attention.

Investments in Australia, Greenland, and other countries highlight the Chinese attempt to diversify their supply chain.

The environmental damage from the rare earth industry is increasingly under the scrutiny of governments, with negative impacts on local communities.

In response, some Western countries, including the United States, aim to rebuild their own supply chain, bringing rare earth production "back home".

However, this re-shoring process is hindered by the need to establish high production standards to mitigate the negative impacts of rare earth extraction.

In Texas, for example, local communities have opposed an Australian multinational, fearing high pollution rates associated with this extractive activity.

The dilemma becomes clear: on one hand, the desire to bring production back locally to create jobs and address geopolitical issues; on the other hand, the opposition of local communities to polluting production chains, albeit crucial for the ecological transition.

These paradoxes highlight the ethical, environmental, and social challenges associated with rare earth extraction and the complexity of transitioning to sustainable production.

Rapid charging, crucial for next-generation devices and energy storage systems, faces significant challenges.

The increased safety risks and low Coulombic efficiency resulting from this technology impact its practical applications.

This review aims to examine the challenges and recent progress in lithium batteries for rapid charging.

Initially, it defines rapid charging and proposes a critical value for the ionic and electrical conductivity of electrodes, crucial for efficient rapid charging in a functioning battery.

Based on this definition, optimization requirements and strategies for electrodes, electrolytes, and the electrode/electrolyte interface emerge, essential for improving rapid charging.

The focus is on addressing safety risks and enhancing the overall efficiency of the charging process.

Finally, the review offers a general conclusion and perspectives for a better understanding of lithium batteries with rapid charging capabilities.

This insight contributes to outlining the future of an increasingly crucial technology in the field of energy and electronics.

"Battery Features"

The global solid-state battery market is set to experience significant growth between 2023 and 2030, with projections indicating an increase from 23.07 billion dollars in 2022 to 63.54 billion by 2030.

This growth is driven by the increasing adoption of strategies by key industry players. Lithium batteries (LiB) are currently widely used for chemical energy storage, thanks to their lightness, high energy density, and long lifespan.

However, incidents such as fires and explosions have raised serious concerns about the safety of LiBs, especially in electric vehicles (EVs) and power stations.

To address these challenges, solid-state batteries emerge as a solution, offering a simplified structure with a solid electrolyte and higher energy density. These batteries eliminate the need for flammable liquid electrolytes, simplifying the assembly process.

Their operation during charging and discharging follows the principle of traditional LiBs.

The COVID-19 pandemic has impacted the market, but the global size is expected to reach millions of dollars by 2028.

Major global players, including BMW, Hyundai, Dyson, and Apple, will contribute to shaping the market, with the United States, Japan, and the EU representing the largest market shares.

Segmentation by region, company, type, and application provides a detailed framework for industry participants. In conclusion, the solid-state battery market is poised to play an increasingly significant role in the energy storage technology landscape.

4. Solid and Secure: Solid-State Batteries

"Standard and Solid Batteries Image"

Solid-state batteries (SSBs) represent a promising evolution in the field of electrochemical energy storage.

Often regarded as the successor to traditional lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries, SSBs have the potential to revolutionize the industry, especially in the realm of electric vehicles.

"Solid-state battery components"

This new technology offers numerous advantages, including high energy density, extended lifespan, and rapid charging capabilities.

Moreover, SSBs are considered safer compared to Li-ion batteries, as they eliminate the use of flammable materials like liquid electrolytes. However, solid-state batteries are inherently different from their lithium-ion counterparts.

"Current and Future Battery Architecture"

Currently, manufacturing methods and testing conditions have yet to be fully standardized, both at the research laboratory level and on the production line.

Countries like Japan, China, and the European Union have set ambitious goals to commercialize this technology by 2030, emphasizing the importance and urgency of the transition towards SSBs.

"Comparison between Standard Batteries and Solid Batteries"

Solid-state batteries emerge as a revolution in the field of energy storage technologies, offering a range of unique advantages and challenges.

With smaller dimensions compared to traditional liquid lithium-ion batteries, solid-state batteries present an opportunity for more compact and lighter devices.

The absence of hydrogen gas production, due to the lack of flammable materials, not only contributes to operational safety but also eliminates one of the drawbacks of conventional batteries.

A key element is the solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) layer, which does not form in solid-state batteries.

This results in significantly low self-discharge rates, allowing for prolonged energy storage with minimal losses over time.

Projections indicate that these batteries could last from 50 to 100 times longer than their liquid lithium-ion counterparts, promising an exceptionally extended operational lifespan.

However, current solid-state batteries still face a significant challenge: a limited operational lifespan, approximately three years.

Intense research and development efforts aim to overcome this hurdle, seeking to extend the operational life of solid-state batteries beyond three years to enable their widespread commercialization, especially in the electric vehicle sector.

In summary, while solid-state batteries promise a revolution in safety and energy efficiency, technical challenges still represent an open field for innovation and refinement of this cutting-edge technology.

"Different types of batteries"

The "BLADE" Batteries

Recently, advancements in BYD's blade batteries have drawn attention, focusing on safety, energy density, and versatility.

Passing acupuncture tests, these batteries increase energy density by 50%, solving the dilemma of safety and high specific energy.

The blade battery, ranging in length from 600 to 2000 mm, fits perfectly into battery packs, supporting even larger vehicles. Its modularity allows for different lengths, facilitating large-scale production.

 

"The new Blade Batteries from BYD"

A distinctive feature is the lifespan of lithium iron phosphate batteries. With theoretical life cycles of 3000, they achieve at least 2000 cycles in practice.

Considering the BYD Han, with 2000 cycles, the lifespan exceeds 1.2 million km. Experts also consider low-temperature performance and charging speed.

Intelligent temperature management, from liquid cooling to special coatings, is key.

BYD aims to improve materials and systems for optimal performance. Fast charging, at 1.5-2°C, offers competitive times, in line with ternary batteries.

In conclusion, BYD's blade batteries represent a leap forward in safety, adaptability, and performance, promising a reliable and efficient future for electric mobility.

Sodium Batteries

Sodium batteries represent a rapidly growing technology, attracting increasing interest as alternatives to traditional lithium batteries.

To fully understand the peculiarities of these batteries, it is crucial to examine the substantial differences that separate them from lithium counterparts.

From a chemical standpoint, the differences start with the atomic radius of the sodium cation, which is 0.3 Å larger than lithium.

This disparity translates into an atomic weight and mass over three times greater than that of lithium.

This fact immediately presents significant technical challenges, mainly due to the increased mechanical stress during movement between anode and cathode, contributing to the accelerated deterioration of the cell.

Graphite, commonly used as an anode material in lithium batteries, undergoes irreversible exfoliation reactions in interaction with the sodium ion, significantly reducing the life cycle of sodium batteries.

"Sodium Battery"

An additional obstacle is represented by the standard reduction potential of sodium ions, which is lower than that of lithium.

This results in a lower maximum voltage, with a sodium cell offering 2.3–2.5 V compared to 3.2–3.7 V for a lithium cell.

The reduced energy density is evident, as, for the same weight, a sodium battery can store 40% less energy compared to a lithium battery.

Moving to the advantages and disadvantages, sodium batteries are gaining attention as alternatives to lithium, especially considering the growing demand and limited lithium resources in the Earth's crust.

Among the advantages are the economic availability of raw materials, low cost, high safety, resistance to low temperatures, and limited environmental impact.

The widespread natural presence of sodium, as the sixth most abundant element in the Earth's crust, gives it a significant competitive advantage.

However, the limitations of sodium batteries cannot be ignored.

Their low energy density, with values between 140 Wh/kg and 160 Wh/kg compared to 180 Wh/kg–250 Wh/kg for lithium batteries, represents a significant challenge.

Furthermore, the short lifecycle, due to the larger mass of sodium ions and mechanical stress, is a hurdle to overcome for large-scale implementation.

When considering primary applications, sodium batteries could emerge as cost-effective alternatives in situations where economic considerations outweigh performance.

The low energy densities make them particularly suited for stationary applications and energy storage systems, such as photovoltaic and wind plants with intermittent production.

The prospects for sodium-ion technology are promising, with an expected growth rate of 27% per year over the next decade.

Annual production could increase from 10 GWh in 2025 to about 70 GWh in 2033. Despite some challenges to be addressed, such as low energy density, the automotive sector is already showing strong interest.

Major lithium battery manufacturers, like CATL, are exploring innovative solutions, such as hybrid battery packs, which could revolutionize the market.

In conclusion, while sodium batteries still have some limitations, their increasing adoption and efforts in research and development suggest that this technology could play a significant role in the future of energy storage solutions and electrical applications.

The growing interest and diversification of production lines highlight the potential of sodium batteries as a sustainable and competitive alternative in the battery technology landscape.

5. Under the X-Rays: 2D and 3D Tomography

Over the last three decades, the evolution of rechargeable battery technologies has been remarkable. However, cell manufacturers are still facing challenges in quality control and process, especially in non-destructively mapping the microstructure of electrodes, heterogeneities, and their impact on aging and battery performance.

This article introduces innovative workflows that integrate computed tomography and 3D X-ray microscopy to create detailed visualizations of cells and battery packs, allowing the study of their structure before and after charge/discharge cycles.

These workflows, independent or complementary to other multiscale microscopy evaluations, provide valuable information on different scales, from the macroscopic features of battery packs to microscopic details in electrode materials.

Understanding battery systems through X-ray imaging can accelerate development, improve cost efficiency, and simplify the analysis of failures and quality inspection of lithium-ion batteries and other emerging technologies.

   

"Tomography of a cylindrical battery"

Three decades have passed since the debut of the revolutionary lithium-ion batteries (LIBs), inaugurated in 1991 by the vision of Sony Corporation.

In 2019, the prestigious Nobel Prize in Chemistry honored John B. Goodenough, M. Stanley Whittingham, and Akira Yoshino, celebrating their epochal contribution to the development of LIBs.

Today, LIBs play a crucial role in a world dependent on portable electronic devices and are driving the wave of innovation in electric vehicles.

With increasing attention to energy sustainability, the automotive industry is becoming the primary market for high-performance batteries.

A monumental shift, with major automakers planning the transition from internal combustion engines to electric vehicles within the next 10-30 years. However, the road to energy perfection requires further advances in cell design and production processes.

Challenges include improving energy density, capacity, energy retention, and safety.

In this race for innovation, advanced imaging techniques emerge as powerful allies, particularly 3D X-ray microscopy.

This revolutionary technology, already applied to LIBs, is envisioned as the catalyst to extend battery life, ensure operational safety, and maximize charging and discharging performance.

While LIBs lead the transition towards a carbon emission-free future, the methodologies discussed in this document are also adaptable to other systems, such as solid-state batteries with cutting-edge energy materials.

It marks the beginning of a new energy era, where detailed imaging of batteries is the key to unlocking a sustainable future.

"The different NDT systems for battery inspection"

Exploring the Depths of Batteries with 3D X-Ray Imaging

The innovative use of 3D X-ray imaging to examine lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) is rapidly gaining momentum.

Although relatively new, this technology has established itself in recent years as crucial for meeting the demands of spatial resolution and sample size.

Traditional high-energy flat panel inspection techniques are suitable only for large batteries, lacking the necessary resolution for features finer than 10 μm.

Ideal for examining small cells and battery components in the range of 800 to 1000 nm, including individual electrodes and separators, X-ray microscopy (XRM) allows the exploration of intricate details.

However, power and energy limitations may restrict higher spatial resolutions. This section presents common laboratory setups for 3D X-ray imaging of LIBs, with a focus on X-ray computed tomography.

This technique, essential in the industrial field, creates virtual 3D reconstructions, revealing the internal and external structure and morphology of objects.

Continuous innovation in geometric magnification (Mg) and spatial resolution promises a fascinating future for battery exploration.

 

• CT can quantify porosity and pore distribution in 3D, providing crucial information for optimizing the design of these key components. Porosity affects the transport of ions and electrons within the battery, and CT allows identifying the ideal pore distribution to maximize performance.
• The technique is also useful for assessing the structural integrity of electrodes and separators, identifying cracks or delaminations that may compromise battery functionality.

Examples:

• Study of graphene-based electrodes: CT has been used to study the morphology of graphene-based electrodes in lithium-ion batteries. The results showed that the porous structure of graphene was highly interconnected, favoring ion and electron transport.
• Separator study: CT has been used to study the structure of polypropylene separators. The results showed that the separator porosity was uniform, and the pore size was optimal for lithium ion transport.
  

• CT can identify material degradation mechanisms, such as corrosion, dendrite formation, or coating delamination. Knowledge of these mechanisms is crucial for developing more durable and reliable battery materials.

• CT can be used to monitor degradation evolution over time, providing valuable information on battery life.

Examples:

• Study of stainless steel corrosion: CT has been used to study stainless steel corrosion in lithium-ion batteries. The results showed that corrosion had started at grain edges and propagated along grain boundaries.

• Dendrite formation study: CT has been used to study lithium dendrite formation in lithium-ion batteries. The results showed that dendrites preferentially formed on surfaces with high roughness.

• Coating delamination study: CT has been used to study coating delamination in a nickel-cobalt-manganese oxide-based electrode. The results showed that delamination was caused by a chemical reaction between the coating and the electrolyte.

• CT can be used to optimize battery performance in various ways. For example, it can be used to identify the ideal pore distribution within the electrode, to monitor dendrite formation during charging and discharging, and to evaluate the efficiency of the lithium intercalation/deintercalation process.

• The technique can also be used to optimize the battery management system (BMS) design.

Examples:

• Optimization of pore distribution: CT has been used to optimize pore distribution in a nickel-cobalt-manganese oxide-based electrode. The results showed the optimal pore distribution.
• Stainless steel corrosion study: CT has been used to study stainless steel corrosion in lithium-ion batteries. The results showed that corrosion had started at grain edges and propagated along grain boundaries.
• Dendrite formation study: CT has been used to study lithium dendrite formation in lithium-ion batteries. The results showed that dendrites preferentially formed on surfaces with high roughness.